Unholy Oversight: Australia’s Religious Abuse Blindspot

Ayesha Ibrahim, 2025 Commission on the Status of Women, Curtin University Fellow

Executive Summary

Religious and spiritual abuse (R/SA) is a pervasive yet under-recognised form of harm that can involve coercive control, spiritual manipulation, financial exploitation, and violations of bodily autonomy, often legitimised through religious authority. It can result in severe psychosocial consequences, including disownment, homelessness, poor mental health, social isolation, and high-risk behaviours. Despite its serious impacts, particularly on women, R/SA remains poorly defined in legal and policy frameworks. While elements of R/SA have been explored in the Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse (RCIRCSA) and Australian Institute of Family Studies (AIFS)-led research, it has never been thoroughly investigated in Australia as a distinct form of abuse.

This paper proposes the establishment of a specialised R/SA national support hotline, funded with approximately $8 to $10 million annually under the Department of Social Services’ (DSS) 2025–26 Outcome 2 budget. The service would provide trauma-informed specialist psychosocial support, enable critical data collection, and strengthen cross-sectoral capacity to identify and respond to R/SA. In the long term, success would be measured through positive user outcomes and satisfaction, increased service engagement, improved cross-sector collaboration, and formal policy recognition. 

Problem Identification

In Australia, R/SA remains critically unaddressed, with no national data or systematic research examining its prevalence or impact, despite growing indicators of concern (Truong & Ghafournia, 2024). For example, the Australian Federal Police (AFP) reported a steady rise in forced marriage cases during 2023–2024, with 91 recorded incidents. This figure accounted for nearly 25% of all human trafficking cases that year, with women constituting 80% of those who sought support (AFP, 2025; Life Without Barriers, 2025). This practice is commonly underpinned by religious justifications, while underreporting is driven by complex familial dynamics, including coercion, threats, and emotional manipulation (Lyneham & Bricknell, 2018). Though notable, these findings represent part of a wider phenomenon that has yet to be fully investigated. Comparable quantitative data on other forms of R/SA in Australia, such as honour-based violence, coerced religious adherence, and faith-based female genital mutilation, has yet to be produced. In addition to underreporting by victim-survivors, this literature gap can be attributed to the limited scope of existing studies, which rarely focus on the role of religion or spirituality in enabling and justifying abuse.

The long-term consequences of R/SA can include mental health deterioration, homelessness, disordered eating, risk-taking behaviours, exclusion, and disrupted family relationships (Crocker, 2012; Mulvihill et. al., 2023). Furthermore, international research highlights that women experiencing R/SA are 4.13 times more likely to face reproductive coercion (Ellis et al., 2022). Compounding these harms, religious institutions often retraumatise survivors by prioritising institutional reputation over women's safety, with faith leaders encouraging women to remain in abusive situations (Hulley et. al., 2023).

The lack of national data on R/SA severely limits the capacity of policymakers and service providers to design evidence-based, culturally-informed interventions. Given the vast majority of victim-survivors are women, addressing this issue is consistent with Australia’s commitment to ending gender-based violence (Truong & Ghafournia, 2024). The National Plan to End Violence against Women and Children 2022–2032 recognises the need for inclusive, culturally responsive approaches to ending gender based violence (Commonwealth of Australia, 2022); however, without comprehensive examination of R/SA, a critical dimension of gendered harm will be overlooked. Until this knowledge gap is addressed, effective prevention, support, and policy responses will remain inadequate, leaving survivors vulnerable and at risk.

Context

What is R/SA?

Defined as a form of psychological and emotional abuse, R/SA refers to the use of coercive and controlling behaviours within a religious or spiritual context, often invoking religious teachings or authority to justify, excuse, or minimise abusive conduct (Truong & Ghafournia, 2024). Examples include but are not limited to restrictions on personal autonomy, conversion therapy, physical violence framed as deserved spiritual punishment, and in its most extreme forms, female genital mutilation (FGM), child marriage, and murder (Amber et al., 2023; Swindle et al., 2024). R/SA typically occurs undetected unless other distinct forms of abuse, such as family and domestic violence (FDV), are present (Roguski, Atwool & Ilac, 2024; Truong & Ghafournia, 2024). Furthermore, it is not confined to a single belief system, occurring across a wide range of faith and spiritual communities (Nason-Clark et al., 2017).

Impact on Women

It is widely recognised that R/SA disproportionately impacts women, particularly those from migrant and minority communities (Ellis et al., 2022; Lyneham & Bricknell, 2018; Truong & Ghafournia, 2024). By using faith to reinforce patriarchal structures and gender roles, in turn normalising male dominance and the subordination of female autonomy, religious communities and institutions can serve as drivers of R/SA (Truong & Ghafournia, 2024). Women of faith often experience feelings of guilt, shame and fear of dishonouring religious values, inhibiting their willingness to seek support. For example, a survey of 1,392 overseas-born women in Australia found religious women were significantly more likely to justify and tolerate FDV compared to their nonreligious counterparts (Segrave, Wickes & Keel, 2021).

Socio-economic Impact

In the absence of comprehensive data, the broader socio-economic impacts of R/SA are difficult to quantify. However, given the documented intersections between FDV and R/SA, it is reasonable to infer that its consequences similarly extend beyond individual survivors (Foster, 2011; Willman & Team, 2009). The Senate Finance and Public Administration References Committee (2015) notes the societal costs of FDV in Australia include lost economic productivity, increased demand on child protection, health and welfare services, and disruptions to education. It can therefore be inferred that R/SA produces comparable impacts.

R/SA in Australia

Over 50% of Australians identify with a religion, yet R/SA remains poorly understood (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022). While limited, documented case studies provide qualitative insights into the diverse manifestations of R/SA across Australia. Examples include: 

• #ChurchToo movement (2024): 33 women reported experiencing sexual abuse by faith leaders using theological justifications in Australian Evangelical and Pentecostal churches (Simpson, 2024) 

• Forced child marriage in Western Australia (2024): Three men were charged over the forced marriage of two children in a religious ceremony (AFP, 2024)

• Malka Leifer case (2023): Former ultra-Orthodox principal was convicted of sexually abusing two students at Melbourne’s Adass Israel School (2003–2007), after members of the religious community facilitated her escape to Israel and shunned survivors for speaking out (Erlich, 2023)

• Murder of Elizabeth Struhs (2022): an eight-year-old girl with type 1 diabetes in Queensland passed away after being denied insulin by her parents, members of the faith-based healing group, The Saints, who claimed “God [would] heal her” (Lavelle, 2025) 

• Attempted honour-killing in South Australia (2021): Numerous family members coordinated the premeditated stabbing of a 21-year-old Muslim woman in a public car park after discovering she was dating a Christian man (South Australian Police, 2024) 

• Murder of Ruqaia Haidari (2020): A 21-year-old refugee from Afghanistan was murdered by her much older husband in Perth, two months after being forced into a marriage for the second time; her first at age 15 in a religious ceremony (Ore & Bucci, 2024)

• SBS Becoming Ex-Muslim investigation (2018): Ex-Muslims around the country reported facing blackmail, disownment, doxing, honour-based threats, and violence from family and community members over their apostasy (SBS, 2018) 

Responses to R/SA

As of 2025, two government authorised inquiries have examined elements of R/SA, albeit within the broader context of investigations into FDV and child sexual abuse (CSA). The AIFS policy and practice paper Understanding Spiritual and Religious Abuse in the Context of Intimate Partner Violence (Truong & Ghafournia, 2024) outlines the unique harms experienced by survivors of both FDV and R/SA, while the RCIRCSA (Commonwealth Government, 2017) dedicated a full volume to the systemic abuse and failures within religious institutions that contributed to CSA.

The Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse

The RCIRCSA (Commonwealth Government, 2017) found that religious institutions were the most frequently cited context for CSA, with cases occurring in 1,691 separate religious settings. Survivors described not only sexual abuse, but also cases in which religious authority, language, and symbols, such as the threat of eternal damnation, were weaponised to coerce and silence victims. Most perpetrators were religious leaders whose revered status allowed them to avoid scrutiny, with some parents punishing children for speaking out due to the leaders’ perceived moral authority. 

Recommendations 16.31–16.58 of the final RCIRCSA report are specific to religious institutions, calling for the mandatory adoption of 10 (now 11) Child Safe Standards, mandatory training and psychological screenings, professional supervision, transparent complaint mechanisms, a national register, and explicit codes of conduct for all religious personnel. Notably, several institution-specific recommendations raise questions about practical feasibility. For example, Recommendation 16.28, which advises Jehovah’s Witnesses to revise internal procedures to include women in decision-making processes related to abuse allegations, poses significant challenges by directly contradicting doctrinal beliefs. This highlights a persistent tension between upholding freedom of religion and protecting individuals from harm.

Since 2018, the National Office for Child Safety has issued yearly updates outlining progress across sectors in response to the Royal Commission’s 409 recommendations. Several religious organisations, including the Catholic Church, Jehovah's Witnesses, Anglican Church, Yeshiva, and Uniting Church institutions, have voluntarily submitted reports detailing their implementation of child safe standards. Some organisations have also pursued independent reviews; for instance, the Sydney Anglican Diocese commissioned a legal audit which found compliance with 14 out of 33 applicable standards. Recent data indicates that approximately one in 250 Australians report experiencing child sexual abuse in a religious setting, reflecting one measurable aspect of a broader and more complex pattern of R/SA (Hunt et. al., 2024). 

Australian Institute for Family Studies Policy and Practice Paper

The AIFS Understanding Spiritual and Religious Abuse in the Context of Intimate Partner Violence (Truong & Ghafournia, 2024) paper outlines current evidence on the intersection of R/SA and FDV in Australia. It recommends increasing practitioner awareness, exploring how religious beliefs shape survivor experiences, and assessing the need for faith-based resources. While the paper acknowledges that religious institutions can enable or justify abuse, over 70% of the recommended support services are faith-based organisations. These recommendations could have been strengthened by acknowledging existing Australian-based secular and culturally specific services, such as Pathways Melbourne, which assists Jewish individuals transitioning out of ultra-Orthodox communities, and the Elsewhere Initiative, which offers tailored mental health support for Ex-Muslims. It is essential to recognise the risks survivors may face from former religious communities, from shunning and social ostracism to threats and physical violence, which can exacerbate trauma and hinder access to support.

Policy Options

To effectively address R/SA in Australia, it is imperative to establish a comprehensive understanding of the issue through systematic data collection. This will enable the development of informed, evidence-based policy responses. Furthermore, services must be tailored to the specific needs of survivors, incorporating culturally appropriate frameworks and survivor feedback to ensure their effectiveness. These objectives could be achieved through the following policy mechanisms:

Option 1: Commission a national study on R/SA funded by DSS. 

This policy option proposes that an aligned organisation, such as the AIFS, receives funding from DSS to undertake a national study on R/SA, with the aim to establish a robust evidence base on its prevalence, nature, and impacts in Australia. The study would include a population survey and targeted consultations with survivors and service providers to capture both personal experiences and frontline perspectives. It would draw on established research methodologies from previous studies, such as the 2021 AIFS-led National Elder Abuse Prevalence Study, which was delivered at an estimated cost of $2.5 to $3 million. Based on this figure and accounting for inflation, the proposed R/SA study is expected to cost approximately $3 to $4 million. While the findings would inform future service design, prevention strategies, and policy responses, challenges include definitional inconsistencies and underreporting due to stigma.  

Option 2: Develop a national hotline for R/SA survivors.

Funded by DSS under the 2025–26 Outcome 2 budget, this option proposes the creation of a project tender to deliver a national hotline service to provide tailored, culturally informed psychosocial support to R/SA survivors. This could be delivered in partnership with existing non-government service providers in this space, such as Telstra Health’s 1800RESPECT national domestic violence hotline. Mental health professionals with expertise and/or lived experience in R/SA would be recruited to provide frontline support and lead training for new staff, enhancing sector capability. Additionally, the collection of de-identified client data would contribute to a deeper understanding of the manifestations, prevalence, and impacts of R/SA in Australia, informing evidence-based policy development and service delivery. Given the budget for comparable national helpline services such as 1800RESPECT, which is receiving $200 million over five years (Australian National Audit Office, 2023), this service would require approximately $8 to 10 million annually. This reflects a scaled-down model designed for a smaller, specialised client base, with lower call volumes but comparable national accessibility and trauma-informed support. While this initiative addresses a significant gap in specialised support and would generate necessary insights into the national scope and scale of R/SA, engagement is likely to be hindered by stigma and concerns over reputational harm. Ultimately, sustainable funding and ongoing government support will depend on demonstrating measurable impact through effective community engagement. 

Option 3: Establish a Royal Commission into R/SA.

Establish a Royal Commission into R/SA funded by the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet (PMC), modelled on the RCIRCSA. This would address the absence of any national-level investigation into the structural and institutional drivers of R/SA, particularly within faith-based communities. The Commission would examine the prevalence, dynamics, and long-term impacts of R/SA, centre survivor testimony, and deliver clear recommendations for prevention, accountability, and institutional reform. A Royal Commission would elevate the issue to national consciousness and create meaningful avenues for justice, but would require a substantial investment of time and resources and may encounter resistance from powerful religious institutions. Additionally, trauma-informed processes and robust safeguards will be critical to protecting survivors from retraumatisation and upholding the Commission’s integrity. Given the RCIRCSA cost $372.8 million over five years, a targeted three-year inquiry into R/SA could reasonably be expected to cost $150–180 million. 

Policy Recommendation

Option 2, “develop a national hotline for R/SA survivors”, is recommended as the most effective response to address the absence of national R/SA data, while simultaneously providing specialised support for survivors.

Rationale

There is currently no comprehensive database that recognises or records R/SA as a distinct category of harm in Australia. This limits the capacity of policymakers and service providers to understand the unique needs of survivors. In addition, forms of abuse that fall outside the scope of criminal prosecution, such as forced religious practices, shunning, and faith-based blackmail, are currently overlooked in policy and legislative frameworks. 

This option presents the most cost-effective and immediate response, addressing two critical gaps simultaneously: the absence of dedicated support services for survivors of R/SA, and the lack of national data on its prevalence and impacts. While national hotlines such as 1800RESPECT currently acknowledge R/SA as a distinct form of abuse on their website, there is currently no specialised support stream within the service. Creating a dedicated response to R/SA that can be integrated within existing service frameworks would therefore be a practical and financially efficient solution, allowing for streamlined implementation and reduced start-up costs by leveraging pre-existing trusted infrastructure. 

Implementing this initiative supports the National Plan to End Violence against Women and Children 2022–2032, which recognises R/SA as a form of abuse and calls for specialised, trauma-informed responses to gendered violence in all its forms (DSS, 2022). 

Design and Scope

This policy proposes a nationally available, specialised psychosocial support hotline which can be integrated within existing similar services, such as 1800RESPECT, to provide targeted support for survivors of R/SA. This would provide accessible 24/7 support via telephone, SMS, online chat, and video call platforms. To ensure a safe and inclusive environment for survivors, the service would operate as an entirely secular institution. In addition to immediate counselling services, it would offer wrap-around psychosocial support including referrals to housing, legal, medical, and psychological services where appropriate. Staffing would prioritise mental health professionals with lived experience and/or expertise in religious trauma literacy, who would provide training and supervision to upskill additional recruits. 

To address the current R/SA literature gap and contribute to a deeper understanding of its manifestations, prevalence, and impacts in Australia, the service would collect and publish anonymised data on the following:

• Type of abuse experienced (e.g. coercive control, sexual abuse, financial exploitation, forced religious practices)

• Setting in which the abuse occurred

• Religious affiliation

• Frequency and duration of abuse

• Relationship to the perpetrator(s)

• Demographic information (e.g. age group, gender, cultural background, migration/refugee status, geographic location)

• Whether the abuse is ongoing or historical

• Whether the survivor is still involved in the religious/spiritual community

• Whether the survivor has accessed any support services previously

• Outcomes of the support interaction, including referrals made

  
  

In addition to data collection and support services, a national public awareness campaign will accompany the rollout to ensure visibility and uptake among diverse communities, with particular emphasis on reaching migrant and culturally and linguistically diverse populations. Additionally, a lived experience consultancy group will be utilised to inform contextually appropriate responses, advise on best practices, and provide ongoing feedback to ensure the service remains survivor-centred. 

Governance

This initiative would be governed and funded at a federal level by DSS, aligning with Outcome 2 of its 2025-26 Portfolio Budget Statements, "contribute to stronger and more resilient individuals, children, families and communities by providing targeted supports” (Commonwealth of Australia, 2025). With regards to service delivery, a competitive tender process will be used to identify suitable service providers. General implementation and oversight will remain the responsibility of DSS, who would consult the lived experience advisory group, service users and frontline staff to produce an annual evaluation of service performance, user outcomes, and opportunities for improvement. 

Costing

Initial expenses would include the development and rollout of a targeted public awareness campaign in the first year, while primary ongoing costs would include frontline service delivery, data collection and analysis, and the operation of the lived experience consultancy group.

Given the anticipated narrower scope of this service compared to national hotlines such as 1800RESPECT, the estimated annual cost is between $8 million and $10 million. This estimate is informed by current Commonwealth funding of approximately $200 million over five years for 1800RESPECT. 

Success Metrics

The effectiveness and impact of the R/SA hotline will be assessed using both quantitative and qualitative indicators, including:

• Total volume of contact, including disaggregated data by age, gender, religious background, referral source, and location to assess reach

• Number and outcomes of referrals made to external support services

• Anonymous user satisfaction surveys assessing trust, cultural safety, and service relevance

• Increased recognition of R/SA in national policy discussions and service frameworks

• Strengthened cross-sector capacity to respond to R/SA disclosures

Barriers and Risks

Barriers

The continued under-recognition of R/SA within mainstream service systems, legal definitions, and public discourse presents a significant barrier for survivors. Individuals may not possess the language or conceptual framework to articulate their experience as abuse, resulting in delayed or suppressed help-seeking. In addition, fear of spiritual retaliation, social exclusion, physical harm, or community surveillance can act as powerful deterrents to disclosure, particularly among those exiting high-control religious environments or closed faith-based communities. To build language for recognition and promote help-seeking behaviours, a publicly accessible awareness campaign that provides clear examples of R/SA, outlines survivors’ rights, and explains how to seek support outside community structures would be required. 

There are also cultural and structural limitations within existing services that may inhibit engagement. Individuals from migrant and religiously conservative backgrounds may harbour distrust toward government or secular services, particularly where past experiences have involved discrimination or cultural insensitivity. Compounding this is the lack of a nationally consistent training framework for professionals responding to R/SA. Many frontline workers lack the cultural literacy or trauma-informed competencies necessary to respond effectively, increasing the risk of retraumatisation or minimisation of harm. These limitations can be mitigated through the development of a nationally consistent training framework that equips frontline professionals with cultural literacy and R/SA trauma-informed competencies. Additionally, partnerships with trusted community organisations and culturally responsive service providers would enhance accessibility and build trust among individuals from migrant and religiously conservative backgrounds.

Risks

Operational risks include the potential for insufficient public visibility, particularly in the absence of a well-resourced awareness campaign. This could significantly limit the hotline’s accessibility to individuals in remote, migrant, or insular religious communities. Data collection and storage also pose ethical concerns, particularly around the handling of information related to religious affiliation or abuse within coercive environments. Robust privacy protections and ethical oversight will be required to safeguard client confidentiality.

In addition, the hotline may face resistance or reputational challenges from some religious institutions, especially where the service is perceived as critical of faith practices or doctrines. To mitigate this, clear public messaging and an opt-in liaison model with faith institutions, guided by the preferences of service users, will be essential. Finally, long-term sustainability will depend on stable funding and cross-sectoral support. Without ongoing investment and integration into the broader family and community services ecosystem, there is a risk that the hotline will be treated as peripheral despite its national significance.

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The views and opinions expressed by Global Voices Fellows do not necessarily reflect those of the organisation or its staff.